The Few, the Diverse, the Marines of the American Revolution
When Congress authorized re-establishment of the Marine Corps 11 July 1798, "negroes, mulattoes or Indians" were excluded from enlisting -- a policy the Corps adherered to until World War II. But when the first marines were organized for the War of Independence, it was a racially and ethnically integrated branch of the military. It had to be. One third of the population supported independence -- but not all of those were willing to enlist. One third was loyal to the British Crown. The other third was sitting it out, ready to cheer for whoever won. Anyone willing to fight for independence was desperately needed.
The Continental Congress passed a resolution 10 November 1775 providing for two battalions of American marines. Like all marines in any navy, they were to keep order aboard ships -- the reason for centuries of emnity between navy and marine servicemen.
But marines were recruited from men with experience on ocean voyages. They were also expected to engage the enemy during battle from the ships' rigging, as well as servicing cannon, and staffing boarding and landing parties. Marine recruiters often sought men of African descent as recruits -- thousands had experience in the merchant and whaling fleets. Recruiters were not always concerned whether anyone held title to a potential recruit as property either.
Marines were governed by the "Rules and Regulation of the Navy of the United Colonies" approved by congress 28 November 1775, originally drafted by John Adams. These rules contained no restriction based on the race of people enlisted. The initial battles of Lexington, Concord, Bunker Hill, and the liberation of Boston, were all fought in Adams's home state of Massachusetts, by armies that included both free and enslaved Americans of African descent, and a number of Native Americans as well.
One of the most successful early recruiters of marines was Lieutenant Isaac Craig, who enlisted more than 40 men, only eight born in America. A majority were from Britain or Ireland, with several from Germany, Holland and Switzerland.
Marine Captain Robert Mullan's records include "Isaac Walker (Negro)" and "Orange (Negro)" among his recruits, probably from Kent County, Maryland. Later military records list their pay and clothing allowances.
By the end of 1775, five companies had been recruited. They were assigned to guard, then board, six ships being sent to sea for their first action. Thirteen men of African descent are specifically identified in Revolutionary War Marine Corps records. As with regiments of the Continental Army, there are probably more, but "race" was not routinely recorded at enlistment or afterward. Several states had their own naval forces during the Revolution, and they also had marines with a range of different complexions. Ten noted as "negro" or "colored" have been identified among marines in the navies of Massachusetts, Connecticut and Pennsylvania.
One of the first marines to die in the service was John Martin, sometimes known as Keto, enlisted by Captain Miles Kennington. William Marshall of Wilmington held title to Martin by Delaware law at the time, but Kennington made no recorded effort to seek Marshall's permission. From April 1776 to October 1777 Martin served aboard the US vessel Reprisal, which sank off the Newfoundland Banks in the Atlantic, with only one survivor. All the marines went down with the ship.
For a period after the independence of the United States of America was formally recognized, by treaty with the British government, the new nation reduced its armed forces to almost none. The last US Navy ship was sold 3 June 1785. The last marine was discharged 3 September 1783. It would be 15 years before a newly constituted and in many ways more conservative federal government commissioned a new Marine Corps, with the racial restrictions that became familiar in various forms over the next 150 years.
